Categories
Culture Language Learning Science

jítǐ zhǔyì

jítǐ zhǔyì ((jí·tǐ gathered; collected · {body [→ [style; form]]} → [collective] 集体 集體) (zhǔ·yì master · meaning → [-ism] 主义 主義) [collectivism; community spirit]) ← Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

Generally speaking, Western societies are considered to be relatively individualistic, while Eastern societies, like Chinese ones, are considered to be relatively collectivistic, emphasizing the collective, or group, over the individual. This week’s MEotW, “jítǐ zhǔyì ((jí·tǐ gathered; collected · {body [→ [style; form]]} → [collective] 集体 集體) (zhǔ·yì master · meaning → [-ism] 主义 主義) [collectivism; community spirit])”, seems to be the main Mandarin expression referring to such collectivism. (The MEotW post on “kǒngbù huódòng ((kǒng·bù fearing · terror → [terrorist] 恐怖) (huó·dòng living · moving → [activities] 活动 活動) [terrorism; terrorist activities]) contains a brief discussion about some other Mandarin -isms.)

Differences and Possible Causal Factors

While researching this post, I came across a scientific paper that has some interesting information about individualism and collectivism, including some information about measurable regional variations in collectivism that have been found across the Chinese mainland. Here is a quotation from it, regarding individualism and collectivism in general:

The distinction between individualism and collectivism captures important differences in how the relationship between self and others is constructed, as well as whether the individual or the group is understood as the basic unit of analysis (Cross et al., 2011; Hofstede, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 2010; Oyserman et al., 2002; Triandis, 1995). People living in individualistic cultural contexts (e.g., the United States and the United Kingdom) tend to pay more attention to the achievement of their own goals and their own uniqueness. They have clear boundaries with others and pursue well-being or life satisfaction by sharing feelings and achieving personal success. In contrast, people living in collectivistic cultural contexts (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea) tend to be more concerned about maintaining harmonious relations with in-group members, and the boundaries between themselves and these others are much less firm. This distinction is reflected in cognition, perception, memory, cultural products, and even brain function (Morling, 2016; Nisbett & Masuda, 2003; Oyserman et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2007). Many explanations for these differences have been proposed, including cultural heritage (Ma et al., 2016), modernity (Inglehart & Baker, 2000), climato-economic theory (Van de Vliert et al., 2013), the subsistence system (Uskul et al., 2008), the historical risk of infectious disease (Fincher et al., 2008), and geographic and relational mobility (Oishi, 2010).

Later in the paper, the authors divide China into four regions, and present a table listing some factors that may have contributed to the varying degrees of collectivism in those regions.

Triple-Line Framework of variations within China.

Table 1. Ecological Factor Differences Among the Four Regions.

Region I Region II Region III Region IV
Collectivism Lowest Lower Higher Highest
Climate Harsh Harsh Comfortable Comfortable
Water Less Enough Less Enough
Rainfall <400 mm 400–800 mm 400–800 mm >800 mm
Subsistence
system
Herder Wheat or herder/wheat-blended Wheat Rice
Voluntary
settlement
No Yes No No
Population
density
Low Low High High

Pluses and Minuses

Collectivistic societies can have certain good aspects, as expressed by this example sentence from the entry for “xūntáo (xūn·táo {cure (meat/etc.) with smoke} · {mould (as with clay)} → [influence positively; nurture; edify; train] 熏陶 熏/薰陶) in Pleco’s built-in dictionary:

Zài jítǐ zhǔyì jīngshén de xūntáo xià, háizimen hùxiāng guānxīn, hùxiāng bāngzhù. [Word division was edited.]

Nurtured in the spirit of collectivism, the children care for each other and help each other.

However, recently, some research has come out that shows that some negative ways of thinking, feeling, and acting are more likely to be displayed by those in collectivistic societies.

To clarify, here is a definition of “zero-sum” :

Of any system where all gains are offset by exactly equal losses.

So, a zero-sum game or system is one in which another must lose for one to win—no win-win situations. That means that if you hold zero-sum beliefs, as, according to the studies referred to in the above post, collectivists are more likely to do, then you will think that any goodness that’s enjoyed by someone else is goodness that’s no longer available to you.

Zero-sum thinking makes it difficult to have true empathy for others who are suffering, and it makes it difficult to follow the Bible counsel at Romans 12:15:

Rejoice with those who rejoice; weep with those who weep.

Collectivism and the Obsession with Chinese Characters

It seems, then, that there is a connection between collectivism and China’s obsessive refusal so far to move on from Chinese characters to more reasonable and modern writing systems like Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音). Consider this excerpt from my article “Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Was Plan A”:

In addition to those who feel that phasing out the Hànzì [Chinese characters] would be a regrettable cultural loss, I have also noticed that there are some for whom knowledge of Hànzì is a matter of pride and self-identity. They are proud of knowing the Hànzì as they do, and they view their knowledge of the Hànzì as part of what makes them who they are, as something that distinguishes them from those who don’t know the Hànzì. Such ones may defend the Hànzì to the point of irrationality in the face of a more accessible alternative that would make them and their hard-earned knowledge of Hànzì less “special”, that would threaten to render worthless all of the blood, sweat, and tears they have invested into grappling with these “Chinese puzzles”. It’s as if they are saying, “That’s not fair! If I had to go through all this bitter hard work to learn characters before I could read and write Chinese, then everyone else has to too!”

Self-Identity and Balanced Self-Love

Self-identity is one thing that can particularly be a struggle for those raised in collectivistic societies, since the self is relatatively often neglected in such societies. It’s perhaps not surprising then, that, as mentioned above, in the relatively collectivistic Chinese societies, with their relative paucity, or scarcity, of more healthy ways to build and maintain self-identity, so many have such an unhealthy, obsessive attachment to Chinese characters, as something to desperately hang their neglected self-identities on.

As Jehovah’s organization has commented, for us to follow well the command at Matthew 19:19 to “love your neighbor as yourself”, we must first love ourselves in a healthy way. Also, while Romans 12:3 telling each of us “not to think more of himself than it is necessary to think, but to think so as to have a sound mind” is mainly an admonition against the overly self-important thinking that individualistic societies can tend to promote, it also shows that it is necessary to think a certain amount of ourselves to have a balanced, sound mind.

In turn, it seems that our developing a balanced, healthy view of ourselves can contribute to our avoiding things like zero-sum thinking, and to our developing a balanced, healthy view of Chinese characters. From that balanced, healthy place, we can be free to develop a balanced, healthy view of the possible alternative of Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音), which could empower us to serve Jehovah and help others in the Mandarin field as well as we ought to be able to.

Categories
Theocratic

shēn‐lín‐qí‐jìng

shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境) ← Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

[Notes: Tap/click on a Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) expression to reveal its “flashcard”; tap/click on a “flashcard” or its Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) expression to hide the “flashcard”. 📖 📄 📘 icons mean 📖 Reveal All, 📄 Reveal Advanced, and 📘 Reveal None re all the “flashcards” in the heading, paragraph, etc. that they are placed at the beginning of.]

One of the publications that is now recommended to be used on Bible studies is the Yǒngyuǎn Xiǎngshòu Měihǎo de Shēngmìng—Hùdòng Shì Shèngjīng Kèchéng ((Yǒng·yuǎn Eternally · {Far (in Time)} 永远 永遠) (Xiǎng·shòu Enjoy · Receive 享受) (Měi·hǎo Beautiful · Good 美好) (de ’s 的) (Shēngmìng Life 生命)—(Hù·dòng {Each Other} · Moving → [Interactive] 互动 互動) (Shì (Type 式) (Shèng·jīng Holy · Scriptures → [Bible] 圣经 聖經) (Kè·chéng Lessons · Procedure → [Course] 课程 課程) [Enjoy Life Forever!—An Interactive Bible Course (lff)]) (Enjoy Life Forever! (lff)) book. An outstanding feature of this book is its extensive use of the post-paper technology of video, which enables information to be presented much more vividly than could be done with paper. Also, at this time, one of the unique features of Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus material is Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus video transcripts. These can help us Mandarin field language learners to analyze and understand the Mandarin speech used in the many videos referenced in the Mandarin Enjoy Life Forever! book. This in turn can help us make more effective use of these videos while participating in Mandarin Bible discussions using this book.

This week’s MEotW, “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境)”, occurs in subtitle 35 of the transcript for the video for lesson 11, point 4 of the Mandarin Enjoy Life Forever! book:

English:

My favourite Bible book is Esther.

And because I think she was a very special person,

it was especially then that I could imagine

what her situation was like and what kind of a person she was

and I could see myself in the account.

Mandarin:

32
00:01:15,309 → 00:01:18,187
📖 📄 📘 (I 我) zuì (most最/㝡) xǐhuan (xǐ·huan like · enjoy 喜欢 喜歡) de ({’s (Bible book)} 的) shì (is 是) Yǐsītiējì (Yǐsītiē·jì Esther · Record → [Esther] 以斯帖记 以斯帖記).

33
00:01:18,187 → 00:01:21,357
📖 📄 📘 Yīnwei (Yīn·wei because · for 因为 因為) (I 我) juéde (jué·de {to wake to → [to feel]} · get → [get to feel] 觉得 覺得) Yǐsītiē (Esther 以斯帖) hěn ({very much} 很) yǔ‐zhòng‐bùtóng ((yǔ with與/与)‐(zhòng crowd眾/衆)‐(bùtóng not · {was the same} → [was different] 不同) [stood out from the crowd]),

34
00:01:21,357 → 00:01:23,901
📖 📄 📘 suǒyǐ (suǒ·yǐ {that which} · {is the reason} → [so] 所以) zài (at 在) ({(I) read}) zhèige (zhèi·ge this · [mw] 这个 這個) jìzǎi (jì·zǎi recorded · writing → [account] 记载 記載) de (’s 的) shíhou ({(particular) times} 时候 時候),

35
00:01:23,901 → 00:01:26,696
📖 📄 📘 (I 我) gèng (more 更) róngyì (róng·yì {containing → [allowing]} · {being easy} → [easily] 容易) shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (her 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place] → [situation]} 境) de ({in that way} 地) xiǎngxiàng (xiǎng·xiàng {think of} · {(instances of) being like → [images]} → [imagine] 想象 想象/像)

36
00:01:26,696 → 00:01:28,782
📖 📄 📘 dāngshí (dāng·shí {at that} · {(particular) time} 当时 當時) (she 她) suǒ ({that which (she)} 所) chǔ ({was dwelling in} → [was situated in]) de (’s 的) huánjìng (huán·jìng surrounding · {(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place] → [situation]} → [situation] 环境 環境),

37
00:01:28,782 → 00:01:30,867
📖 📄 📘 háiyǒu (hái·yǒu also · {(there) is having → [(there) is]} 还有 還有) (she 她) shì (was 是) ge ([mw]個/个) zěnyàng (zěn·yàng what · kind 怎样 怎樣) de (’s 的) rén (person 人).

Morphemic Breakdown

In “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境)”, “shēn (body [→ [self]] 身)”, which literally means “body”, is used to effectively mean “self”. Another Mandarin expression in which “shēn (body [→ [self]] 身) is used this way is “xiànshēn (xiàn·shēn {offer → [dedicate]} · {body → [self]} | {offering of → [dedicating of]} · {body → [self]} → [dedication] 献身 獻身)”, which literally means “offer body”, but which effectively means “dedicate self”, as one does before getting baptized.

The “lín (face; overlook; {be near to} | arrive; {be present} | approach; {draw near} | {on the point of}; {just before}; {[be] about to}) in this week’s MEotW can have several possible meanings, as can be seen from its Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus “flashcard”. In the context of “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境)”, “lín (face; overlook; {be near to} | arrive; {be present} | approach; {draw near} | {on the point of}; {just before}; {[be] about to}) evidently means “being present (in)”.

Long-time Mandarin field language learners may recall that this “lín (face; overlook; {be near to} | arrive; {be present} | approach; {draw near} | {on the point of}; {just before}; {[be] about to}) also appears in the expression “línzài (lín·zài {having arrived} · {being present} 临在 臨在)”, which was used in older versions of the Mandarin New World Translation Bible to translate the Greek word pa·rou·siʹa in scriptures such as Matthew 24:3. However, as explained in Appendix A2 of the current version of the Mandarin NWT Bible, “línzài (lín·zài {having arrived} · {being present} 临在 臨在) is no longer used to translate pa·rou·siʹa because many readers found this Mandarin expression to be unfamiliar—indeed, out of the several dictionaries loaded in my Pleco app, this expression only appears in the Referenced Theo. Expressions (RTE) one.

Moving on to “qí (he/she/it/they/his/her/its/their/that/such… 其)”, this morpheme seems to function in “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境) as a possessive determiner, determiners being a part of speech that many modern grammar theorists see as distinct from adjectives, pronouns, etc. Regarding that, Wikipedia provides this summary:

Most determiners have been traditionally classed either as adjectives or pronouns, and this still occurs in traditional grammars: for example, demonstrative and possessive determiners are sometimes described as demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives or as (adjectival) demonstrative pronouns and (adjectival) possessive pronouns respectively. …However, modern theorists of grammar tend to distinguish determiners as a separate word class from adjectives, which are simple modifiers of nouns, expressing attributes of the thing referred to.[source][source] This distinction applies particularly in languages, such as English, that use definite and indefinite articles frequently as a necessary component of noun phrases—the determiners may then be taken to be a class of words that includes the articles as well as other words that function in the place of articles.

Finally, the “jìng ({[(set of)] boundaries; borders} [→ [[(bounded)] place; area; territory] [→ [condition; situation; circumstances]]] 境) in “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境) literally means “boundaries; borders”, which here effectively means “(set of) boundaries”, which in turn effectively means “(bounded) place; area”, which in turn effectively means “condition; situation; circumstances”. Another expression in which this “jìng ({[(set of)] boundaries; borders} [→ [[(bounded)] place; area; territory] [→ [condition; situation; circumstances]]] 境) appears is “huánjìng (huán·jìng surrounding; encircling · {(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} → [environment; surroundings; circumstances; situation; context | environmental] 环境 環境)”, which appears in subtitle 36 of the above Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus video transcript excerpt.

Non-“Standard” Hyphenation?

Four-syllable/character expressions like “shēn (body → [self] 身)lín ({being present (in)}) (his/her/its/their… 其)jìng ({(set of) boundaries → [(bounded) place; area] → [condition; situation; circumstances]} 境) have often been written in Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) with a hyphen between the middle syllables, or as one whole word. These formats are really just general stylistic conventions, since even the PRC government’s official standard for Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) orthography is at most a set of recommendations.

Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus material renders such multi-morpheme expressions with hyphens at the actual word boundaries, which should make it easy for readers to parse how these expressions are constructed and thus make sense of them.

Just Like Being There

Interestingly, while it’s obviously relatively easy to get immersed in a good video, with its sights and sounds, the sister quoted in the above-mentioned video from the Enjoy Life Forever! book said that the Bible’s true-life written account about Esther was so compelling to her that she could see herself being there. This week’s MEotW can help us to talk with our Mandarin-speaking Bible students about that kind of Bible-reading experience.


For convenience:

The direct link for the Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus resource for the Enjoy Life Forever! book is:

The short link for Chinese field language-learning links for the Enjoy Life Forever! book is:

More Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) and Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus web material based on the Mandarin Enjoy Life Forever! book will be made available in the Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus web resource as time allows.

Categories
Language Learning Science Technology Theocratic

wùzhǒng

wùzhǒng (wù·zhǒng {thing → [creature]} · species → [species] 物种 物種) ← Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

The Shēngmìng Láizì Chuàngzào Ma? ((Shēngmìng Life 生命) (Lái·zì Came · From 来自 來自) (Chuàng·zào Initiating · {Making, Creating} → [Creating] 创造 創造) (Ma [? ptcl for “yes/no” questions])? [Was Life Created? (lc)]) (Was Life Created? (lc)) brochure and the Shēngmìng de Qǐyuán—Zhíde Sīkǎo de Wǔ Ge Wèntí ((Shēngmìng Life 生命) (de ’s 的) (Qǐ·yuán {Rising → [Starting]} · Source → [Origin] 起源/原)—(Zhí·de Worth · Getting → [Worth] 值得) (Sī·kǎo {Thinking About} · Examining 思考) (de ’s 的) (Wǔ Five 五) (Ge [mw]個/个) (Wèn·tí Asking · Subjects → [Questions] 问题 問題) [The Origin of Life​—Five Questions Worth Asking (lf)]) (The Origin of Life​—Five Questions Worth Asking (lf)) brochure were originally published back in 2010, but recently, the English version of the Was Life Created? brochure was updated to the December 2022 Printing, and the Mandarin version of it was updated to the February 2023 Printing. Also, the Was Life Created? brochure and the Origin of Life brochure are now in the Teaching Toolbox section in the JW Library app. So, it would be good to consider some of the expressions used in the Mandarin versions of these publications that can be so helpful when discussing whether life was created.

Feeling Unqualified?

Whether or not a Creator exists is one of the first questions that needs to be settled in order for one to make spiritual progress, and these days, much scientific or technical information, both accurate and inaccurate, is available in connection with this question. So, it would be good for us to try our best to get conversant with such scientific or technical information.

However, perhaps some hesitate to discuss scientific or technical subjects in their ministry (especially in their Mandarin ministry), because of feeling unqualified, or not “smart” enough. Even practising professionals in technical industries such as web or app development, etc., sometimes talk about being affected by impostor syndrome, so it wouldn’t be surprising if some of us in the Mandarin field who have neither been highly educated about science nor systematically trained on Mandarin may feel like impostors when confronting the prospect of speaking to people in Mandarin about scientific subjects.

The Bible contains many examples of ones who similarly felt unqualified to do what Jehovah directed them to do, such as Moses, Gideon, Amos, Jeremiah, etc. However, despite them feeling unqualified, Jehovah provided them with the help and support required for them to ultimately accomplish what he wanted them to accomplish. Also, David coming off victorious against Goliath is a classic example of someone who, because of Jehovah’s help, succeeded in spite of appearing unqualified from a human viewpoint.

The article “Do Not Limit Yourself​—Overcoming Feelings of Inadequacy”, from the November 2012 Kingdom Ministry, makes some good points that can help us if we feel unqualified to participate in some aspect of our God-given ministry. It’s focused on the Bible study activity in general, but the points it makes can also apply to, say, speaking to people in Mandarin about evolution and creation.

Related Mandarin Resources

Speaking of speaking to people in Mandarin about evolution and creation, helping us to do so is the official Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) material for the Shēngmìng Láizì Chuàngzào Ma? ((Shēngmìng Life 生命) (Lái·zì Came · From 来自 來自) (Chuàng·zào Initiating · {Making, Creating} → [Creating] 创造 創造) (Ma [? ptcl for “yes/no” questions])? [Was Life Created? (lc)]) (Was Life Created? (lc)) brochure and for the Shēngmìng de Qǐyuán—Zhíde Sīkǎo de Wǔ Ge Wèntí ((Shēngmìng Life 生命) (de ’s 的) (Qǐ·yuán {Rising → [Starting]} · Source → [Origin] 起源/原)—(Zhí·de Worth · Getting → [Worth] 值得) (Sī·kǎo {Thinking About} · Examining 思考) (de ’s 的) (Wǔ Five 五) (Ge [mw]個/个) (Wèn·tí Asking · Subjects → [Questions] 问题 問題) [The Origin of Life​—Five Questions Worth Asking (lf)]) (The Origin of Life​—Five Questions Worth Asking (lf)) brochure that Jehovah’s organization has made available. Also, some related unofficial 3-line and Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus material is also available, as detailed at the tiandi.info/lc short link for Chinese language-learning resources for the Was Life Created? brochure. (Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus material and a short link for the Origin of Life brochure are also in the works.)

This blog will also seek to help out by occasionally discussing expressions that appear in the Mandarin versions of the Was Life Created? brochure and the Origin of Life brochure. One such expression is this week’s MEotW, “wùzhǒng (wù·zhǒng {thing → [creature]} · species → [species] 物种 物種), which is used to translate the English word “species”.

Species and Kinds in Mandarin

First, what does “species” even mean in English? One dictionary gives this definition:

Biology A group of closely related organisms that are very similar to each other and are usually capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

Now, consider this footnote in the Was Life Created? brochure that discusses how “species” compares to the term “kind” that’s used in the Bible’s Genesis account:

While the word “species” is used frequently in this section, it should be noted that this term is not found in the Bible book of Genesis. There we find the term “kind,” which is much broader in meaning. Often, what scientists choose to call the evolution of a new species is simply a matter of variation within a “kind,” as the word is used in the Genesis account.

With the above in mind, note that the Was Life Created? brochure (Mandarin version © 2010, 2023-02 Printing) uses “wùzhǒng (wù·zhǒng {thing → [creature]} · species → [species] 物种 物種) to translate “species”, and it uses the “lèi ({kind; type; class; category; genus [of]} | {resemble; be similar to}) in “rénlèi (rén·lèi human/man·kind 人类 人類) to translate “kinds”, as referred to in the Bible book of Genesis.

In comparison, worldly dictionaries like those that can be viewed in the Pleco app join the Was Life Created? brochure in presenting Wùzhǒng Qǐyuán ((Wù·zhǒng {Thing → [Creature]} · Species’ → [Species’] 物种 物種) (Qǐ·yuán {Rising → [Starting]} · Source → [Origin] 起源/原) [Origin of Species]) as the Mandarin translation of “Origin of Species”, the famous book by Charles Darwin. Also, note that in the Mandarin translation of this passage:

The Bible word “kinds” is not a scientific term, but it seems to refer to broad divisions of life-forms. Thus, a single “kind” may include many species or varieties.

the 2021 Awake, No. 3 uses “zhǒnglèi (zhǒng·lèi {{species [of]} | {seed; strain; breed [of]} | {type [of]}; {kind [of]}} · {kind; type; class; category; genus [of]} 种类 種類) to translate “species”, and it follows the current Mandarin New World Translation Bible (nwtsty) in using “lèibié (lèi·bié kind; type; class; category; genus · differentiated → [classification; category; kind] 类别 類別) to translate “kinds”. (Compare Genesis 1:24, 25 in English and Mandarin.) Also, in case you ever encounter “pǐnzhǒng (pǐn·zhǒng product · variety → [breed; strain; variety] 品种 品種)”, that’s what this issue of Awake! uses to translate “varieties”.


For convenience:

The direct link for the current generation Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus resource for the Was Life Created? brochure is:

The short link for Chinese field language-learning links for the Was Life Created? brochure is:

More Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) and Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus web material based on the Mandarin Was Life Created? brochure will be made available in the Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus web resource as time allows. Work is now underway to produce a Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Plus web resource for the Mandarin Origin of Life brochure as well.