Tag: Sinocentrism

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Hànzì

Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) ← Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

[This is a reposting of a post that was originally posted on November 23, 2020. It discusses how, in the big picture, we Mandarin field language learners should view Chinese characters, those seemingly essential but maddeningly difficult-to-learn-and-remember icons of worldly Chinese culture.]

“Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字)” is what Chinese characters are called in Mandarin. Actually, “Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字)” literally means “Han characters”, but as discussed in the MEotW post on “Hànyǔ (Hàn·yǔ {Han (Chinese)} · Language [→ [(Modern Standard) Mandarin]] 汉语 漢語)”, the Han are by far the largest ethnic group in China, and they are the dominant cultural force in China. Thus, Han characters are, in effect, Chinese characters.

漢字 汉字

Han culture has affected not only China, but also many of the surrounding nations. The words used by some of these nations to refer to “Chinese characters” are obvious echoes of “Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字)”:

  • Japanese: kanji
  • Korean: Hanja
  • Vietnamese: hán tự

Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) are still used a lot in modern Japanese writing. However, although Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) used to be the dominant writing system in Korea and in Vietnam, those nations have moved on to mainly use alphabetic writing systems.

The Korean Connection

Regarding the situation in Korea, the Awake! article “Let’s Try Writing in Hankul!” says:

BEFORE Hankul [or Hangul] was created, the Korean language did not have its own script. For more than a thousand years, educated Koreans wrote their language using Chinese characters. Over the years, however, various attempts were made to devise a better writing system. But since all of them were based on Chinese characters, only the well-educated could use them.

…

King Sejong spearheaded the creation of an alphabet that would both suit spoken Korean and be easy to learn and use.

…

Sadly, some scholars opposed Hankul, precisely because it was so easy to learn! They derisively called it Amkul, meaning “women’s letters.” They disdained a system that could be learned even by women, who back then were not taught to read in the schools. This prejudice against Hankul persisted among upper-class Koreans for some time. In fact, more than 400 years elapsed before the Korean government declared that Hankul could be used in official documents.

The Chinese Conundrum

How about the writing system situation in China itself? Do the Chinese languages need to be written using Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字)? Chinese traditionalists have influenced many people to assume so, but there is actually no technical linguistic requirement that any Chinese language be written using Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字)—writing Chinese languages using Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) is purely and merely a deeply embedded tradition.

Proof that the use of Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) is merely a tradition and not a technical requirement comes from the fact that Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音), a phonetic alphabetic system designed by a Chinese government team, is a good, workable full writing system for Modern Standard Mandarin.

Why has China held on to its traditional use of Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) when other nations have moved on to alphabetic writing systems? As mentioned in the MEotW post on “Zhōngguó (Zhōng·guó Central · Nation → [China | Chinese] 中国 中國)”,

Some wonder why China has held on to its archaic characters writing system instead of moving on to using a modern alphabetic writing system like almost every other nation does, even though outstanding native sons like Lǔ Xùn ((Lǔ Stupid; Rash (surname) 鲁 魯) (Xùn Fast; Quick; Swift 迅) (pen name of Zhōu Shùrén, the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th cent. and a strong advocate of alphabetic writing)) have advocated strongly for that. Perhaps the proud self-centredness of the only nation to name itself the centre of the world provides a clue….

When the Communists took over China a few years after World War II, their Plan A for China’s writing system situation actually did involve eventually moving on from the characters to an alphabetic writing system that would be developed, which turned out to be Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音). However, the government needed the help of the people already educated in Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字), and many of these people opposed this plan that they feared would involve leaving behind, or at least de-emphasizing, a cultural tradition that they were very proud of, that they had invested very much time and effort into mastering, and that gave them much prestige in the existing environment.1 In other words, the pride and prejudice of those who had already been educated in the Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) caused them to disparage and oppose the idea of a simpler alternative writing system, just as had been the case in Korea, as noted above. So, the simplification of the Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) is the farthest China has gotten so far with regard to official writing system reform, and even that has only been achieved in the face of much criticism and opposition.

Chairman Máo Zédōng ((Máo Hair (surname) 毛) (Zé·dōng Marsh · East 泽东 澤東) (the founder of the People’s Republic of China)) (Wikipedia article) himself supported continuing to move on, from simplification of the characters to actually adopting Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) as a writing system. In a letter to an old schoolmate, he wrote:

…Pinyin writing is a form of writing that is relatively convenient. Chinese characters are too complicated and difficult. At present we are only engaged in reform along the lines of simplification, but some day in the future we must inevitably carry out a basic reform.2

Letter from Mao endorsing a transition from Chinese characters to alphabetic writing

(The above picture is from near the beginning of the book The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy, by John DeFrancis.)

While obviously what Máo ((Máo Hair (surname) 毛) (abbr. for Máo Zédōng, the founder of the People’s Republic of China)) foresaw regarding a writing system “basic reform” in China has not yet come true, American sinologist and University of Pennsylvania Professor of East Asian Languages and Civilizations Victor H. Mair wrote in a blog post:

So, those who are in favor of HP [Hànyǔ (Hàn·yǔ {Han (Chinese)} · Language → [(Modern Standard) Mandarin] 汉语 漢語) Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音)] don’t need to be concerned, and those who are opposed to HP don’t need to be frightened. HP is ineluctably playing a greater and greater role in the educational, cultural, social, political, and every other aspect of the lives of Chinese citizens, and this is occurring without regard to anyone pushing it as a governmental program. It is happening because of the wishes of those who actually use it for a wide variety of helpful purposes.

Digraphia [the use of more than one writing system for the same language, in this case the use of both Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) and Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) for writing Modern Standard Mandarin] is emerging before our very eyes, enabling people to use the alphabet and the characters for whatever purposes they deem suitable. Nobody needs to take a vote or carry out a survey for this to happen.

Tourists or Missionaries?

Regardless of how worldly Chinese people view the Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字), how should we dedicated Mandarin field language-learners view them? It would be easy to fall back on the commonly accepted view, the tourist’s view, that the Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) are an integral and fascinating part of China’s precious cultural heritage that we should duly respect and even heap adulation upon.

However, as Mandarin field language-learners, we are not in the Mandarin field to be tourists just enjoying the exotic foreign culture. On the contrary, we must be more like missionaries or spiritual rescue workers involved in an urgent life-saving work, because lives are indeed involved. As ones involved in an urgent, life-saving work, we need tools, technologies, and systems that efficiently and effectively help us to get this work done without wasting time and effort when people’s everlasting lives are at stake. From this sober and pragmatic angle, the extraordinarily difficult-to-learn-and-remember Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) are far from ideal. Thus, while there is obviously value in learning as many Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字) as one is reasonably able to, it is fortunate that Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) exists and is available as a simple, effective alternative writing system for Mandarin, for the many times when it is not necessary to use Hànzì (Hàn·zì {Han (Chinese)} · Characters 汉字 漢字).

 

1. John DeFrancis, The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984), p. 258. ^

2. Ibid., p. 295. ^

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Culture Language Learning Languages Science

Zhōngwén

Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文) ← Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

[This is a reposting of a post that was originally posted on October 26, 2020. It’s about something that is fundamentally important for Mandarin field language learners to understand correctly.]

As discussed in a previous MEotW, the expression “Zhōngguó (Zhōng·guó Central · Nation → [China] 中国 中國)” is commonly used to refer to China, since historically, China views itself as the centre of the world, so much so, in fact, that it is the only nation to name itself as such. We can see then that Mandarin expressions starting with “Zhōng (Central → [Chinese] 中)-” can refer to things related to China.

In that case then, are “Zhōnghuà (Zhōng·huà {Central → [Chinese]} · Speech 中话 中話)” or “Zhōngyǔ (Zhōng·yǔ {Central → [Chinese]} · Language 中语 中語)” used to refer to any Chinese language, similarly to how “pǔtōnghuà (pǔ·tōng·huà common; universal · {through(out) → [common]} · speech → [(Modern Standard) Mandarin (term commonly used in China)] 普通话 普通話)” and “Guóyǔ (Guó·yǔ National · Language → [(Modern Standard) Mandarin (term commonly used in Taiwan)] 国语 國語)” are used to refer to Mandarin? Apparently not, according to my dictionaries.

Instead, Chinese people commonly use “Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)”—this week’s MEotW—to mean “Chinese language”. It should be noted, though, that although “Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)” is often used to refer to Chinese speech (e.g., in “shuō (speak 说 說/説) Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)” (“speak Chinese”)), “wén (writing; script [→ [language | culture]] 文)” really means “writing”.

Why do so many Chinese people thus conflate writing with speech and language, when they, while related, are really distinctly different things? This seems to be a symptom of the deeply ingrained Chinese cultural conceit that the Chinese characters are the primary aspect of the Chinese languages—to many Chinese people, the characters are the language. This is contrary to the principle recognized by modern linguists (language scientists) that speech is the primary aspect of any language, not writing. The truth of this basic linguistic principle is shown by the fact that many languages don’t even have a writing system, showing that the required foundation of a language is its speech, not its writing.

Our Creator himself touches on this matter in his Word the Bible:

8 For if the trumpet sounds an indistinct call, who will get ready for battle? 9 In the same way, unless you with the tongue use speech that is easily understood, how will anyone know what is being said? You will, in fact, be speaking into the air. 10 It may be that there are many kinds of speech in the world, and yet no kind is without meaning. 11 For if I do not understand the sense of the speech, I will be a foreigner to the one speaking, and the one speaking will be a foreigner to me.—1 Corinthians 14:8–11.

Yes, Jehovah God himself, the One who designed us with our ability to use language, emphasizes the primary importance of understandable speech when it comes to communicating with people, especially when communicating about the potentially life-saving good news of the Kingdom.

Chinese people, however, often have the mistaken view, based on nothing more than deeply ingrained human tradition and not a little cultural pride, that their characters writing system is the primary aspect of the Chinese languages. So, we must take that into consideration when they or people deferring to them erroneously tell us, with all sincerity, that we need to focus first on Chinese characters in our efforts to learn one or more of the Chinese languages. The truth, as testified to by both real language experts among humans and by the Creator himself, is that speech—both understanding speech and speaking understandably—should be our primary focus as Chinese field language-learners.

Regarding the expression “Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)”, another thing I have noticed is that when Mandarin-speakers say “Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)”, they mean Mandarin speech, but when Cantonese-speakers say “Zhōngwén (Zhōng·wén {Central → [Chinese]} · Writing 中文)” in Cantonese, they mean Cantonese speech. As a Chinese person, I must reluctantly admit that with such habits, and with naming their nation “Zhōngguó (Zhōng·guó Central · Nation → [China] 中国 中國)”, the central nation of the world, many Chinese people have taken quite far the tendency of imperfect humans to consider themselves the centre of the universe!

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Culture Current Events Experiences History Language Learning Science Technology

zìmǎn

zìmǎn (zì·mǎn self · {full → [satisfied]} → [complacent; self-satisfied; smug] 自满 自滿) 👈🏼 Tap/click to show/hide the “flashcard”

As a Chinese person who grew up in a Western country, and who came to serve in Chinese language fields, I sometimes pondered a question that I eventually learned is called the Needham Question:

“Needham’s Grand Question”, also known as “The Needham Question”, is this: why had China been overtaken by the West in science and technology, despite their earlier successes? In Needham’s words,

“Why did modern science, the mathematization of hypotheses about Nature, with all its implications for advanced technology, take its meteoric rise only in the West at the time of Galileo?”, and why it “had not developed in Chinese civilization” which, in the previous many centuries “was much more efficient than occidental in applying” natural knowledge to practical needs.[source][source]

Indeed, China long ago gave us the Four Great Inventions (the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing), so why did it stop inventing such great things, and leave it to the West to invent digital computers, go to the moon first, etc.?

The Wikipedia page linked to above, and also this page that I found on the web, mention many possible factors that scholars have proposed relating to the Needham Question. It may be said that since this question focuses on scientific and technological progress in the context of human political and cultural systems, it is not quite the number one question that we Mandarin field language learners need to be concerned with. However, gaining some understanding of factors relating to this question can help us develop a balanced view of how and how much we should allow traditional Chinese political and cultural views to influence how we apply science and technology to our God-honouring and life-saving work in the Mandarin field. At the very least, the very fact that many have pondered the Needham Question over the years demonstrates that no, worldly Chinese culture is not so perfect and accomplished that we should just unquestioningly adopt worldly Chinese ways of doing things in the Mandarin field.

While the web pages linked to above discuss many sociological, cultural, technical, etc. factors that may have played a role in how China developed, or failed to develop, scientifically and technologically compared to the West, going over this information brought to mind some principles mentioned in the Bible.

“By Their Fruits”

Regarding what really matters in our lives and in our work, Jesus said this at Matthew 7:16–18:

By their fruits you will recognize them. Never do people gather grapes from thorns or figs from thistles, do they? Likewise, every good tree produces fine fruit, but every rotten tree produces worthless fruit. A good tree cannot bear worthless fruit, nor can a rotten tree produce fine fruit.

I remember in years past seeing ads for job openings that required candidates to be “results-oriented”. When I saw such ads, I would wonder, “Why bother saying that? Isn’t every worker of course supposed to be results-oriented?” It turns out that actually, many people are more focused on appearing to be working, on procedures for their own sake, on climbing the corporate ladder, on office politics, etc., than on actually doing the work and getting results.

What Jesus said in the above-quoted scripture emphasizes to us that in our lives and in our work as his disciples, we should be focused on producing “fine fruit”, getting good results for Jehovah, not just on unthinkingly following whatever traditions or procedures we inherited from the worldly human culture we grew up with. Also, we should not be focused on appearing to others who also grew up with such traditions, procedures, and ways of doing things that we are following them, so as to get “glory from men”.—John 5:39–44.

“Pride Is Before a Crash”

As someone who has studied and worked with technology for decades, one thing I have observed regarding the march of changing computing technologies—e.g., impressive IBM mainframes being eclipsed by “toy” personal computers running Microsoft and Apple operating systems, Microsoft’s then-CEO ridiculing the iPhone when it came out, Microsoft prioritizing its Windows legacy and becoming largely irrelevant in the mobile and tablet spaces, etc.—is that the Bible principle at Proverbs 16:18 holds true:

Pride is before a crash,
And a haughty spirit before stumbling.

This basic factor of the progress-limiting effects of being proud and self-satisfied is well expressed in this week’s MEotW, “zìmǎn (zì·mǎn self · {full → [satisfied]} → [complacent; self-satisfied; smug] 自满 自滿)”. As is often discussed on this blog, in the Mandarin field, one area in which progress-limiting pride and self-satisfaction play huge roles is the attitude of many towards the archaic, cumbersome human-invented technology that is the Chinese characters. And yes, a writing system like the Chinese characters is indeed a technology:

[Writing] really is a technology. It’s a thing you do on top of language to do stuff with language, but it’s not the language itself. There are thousands and possibly millions of languages that have never been written down in the history of humanity. We have no idea. We’ve never met a society of humans, or heard of a society of humans, without language. But those are spoken and signed languages, which are just kind of there. Writing, by contrast, was invented somewhere between 3 and 4 times in the history of humanity.

Since writing systems like the Chinese characters are technologies, we should expect writing systems to change and progress like other technologies do, no matter how proud and self-satisfied some people are when it comes to traditional, long-established writing systems like the Chinese characters.

If we generally no longer use punched cards to control computers because we now have keyboards, mice, trackpads, touchscreens, etc., then why use the archaic Chinese characters when the more modern simple and elegant Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) system is available? Is “‘everyone’ still uses Chinese characters” really a good reason? What if “everyone” still used punched cards? What would you do, as someone who knows about way better and easier-to-use alternatives?

Punched card used to load software into an old mainframe computer

Creative Commons Attribution License logo BinaryApe [source]

Chinese characters are the punched cards of writing systems. Punched cards were not totally impossible to use, but there are now much better and easier-to-use ways to control computers.

Of course, in situations in which we need to share information with people who still use computers controlled by punched cards, we would probably need to use punched cards, but how about other situations? Similarly, when producing publications for or writing to people who only read Chinese characters, we need to use Chinese characters, but how about other situations? For example, we Mandarin field language learners usually read and write Mandarin so that we ourselves can be helped to say something good in Mandarin at the right time. Can we make advantageous use of Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) in such situations?

Avoid Unbalanced Admiration

Both Western and Eastern human worldly cultures have their strong points and successes, but they also both have their problematic aspects and failures. So, we should not oversimplify things and jump to the conclusion that either culture is all good or all bad. I myself have found it advantageous to have had the opportunity to be exposed to both Western and Eastern ways of doing things, and to be able to select useful aspects of both to apply in my own life and work. Yes, balanced appreciation of the possibly useful differences between East and West can be beneficial. However, especially since we have the privilege of being taught by Jehovah himself, we need to avoid unbalanced admiration of either Eastern or Western worldly human cultures. (Isaiah 54:13; John 6:45; 1 Corinthians 1:18–31) We Mandarin field language learners particularly need to avoid having what sinologist and linguist John DeFrancis called “Exotic East Syndrome”:

The belief that in the Orient things strange and mysterious replace the mundane truths applicable to the West.

Yes, spiritual and scientific truths remain true for China and Chinese people, such as the basic linguistic truth that speech is primary and writing is secondary.

Commendably, many Chinese individuals have shown themselves to be humble lovers of truth. Unfortunately, though, as I have studied the worldly Chinese culture, I have found that it is in many ways a proud, self-satisfied culture, as described by this week’s MEotW. As has been discussed before on this blog, China is the only nation that routinely calls itself the “Central Nation (Zhōngguó (Zhōng·guó Central · Nation → [China | Chinese] 中国 中國))”. Also, the whole concept of “losing/saving face” is based on the worldly Chinese concept of miànzi (miàn·zi face · [suf for nouns] [→ [reputation; prestige; esteem; honor]] 面子).

As for the worldly Chinese/Eastern cultural practice that “the nail that sticks out gets hammered down”, this really shows pride and self-satisfaction on a systemic or cultural level—while enforcing humility (humiliation?) among individuals, it shows that there is a proud and self-satisfied assumption that the system or culture overall is so good already that it is above being improved upon by “mere” individuals. Really, though, the only One who has demonstrated that he is truly at that level is Jehovah God himself, and the Bible shows that still, he is willing to invite individuals to provide their ideas and input, and to empower them to follow through on them. (1 Kings 22:19–23) Unlike many proud, self-satisfied humans and their systems and cultures, Jehovah has shown that he does not suffer from “not invented here” syndrome, the zìmǎn (zì·mǎn self · {full → [satisfied]} → [self-satisfied] 自满 自滿) belief that only he could possibly have a good idea or make or do something useful. This is so even though he himself is the Almighty Creator of the whole universe.

“Throw Off Every Weight”

Regarding the Needham Question, another Bible scripture that comes to mind for me is Hebrews 12:1, which says, in part:

Let us also throw off every weight…, and let us run with endurance the race that is set before us,

As is widely known, Chinese characters are a huge part of worldly Chinese culture, and with their inhuman number and complexity, they are also abnormally difficult for us imperfect humans to learn and remember. So, naturally, some wonder if Chinese characters have had the effect of weighing China down, or holding China back. In fact, as my article “Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Was Plan A” says:

Concerning the obstacles presented by Chinese characters, the great Chinese writer Lǔ Xùn, who passed away in 1936, reportedly said, “Hànzì bú miè, Zhōngguó bì wáng.” (“汉字不灭，中国必亡。/ 漢字不滅，中國必亡。” “If Chinese characters are not abolished, China will certainly die.”)

Of course, since the time of Lǔ Xùn ((Lǔ {Stupid; Rash (surname)} 鲁 魯) (Xùn Fast; Quick; Swift 迅) (pen name of Zhōu Shùrén, the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th cent. and a strong advocate of alphabetic writing)), China has not died, but has instead gone on to much worldly success, so at least so far, it seems that Chinese characters are not quite fatal to China. However, even a rudimentary technical analysis, along with real-world phenomema like tíbǐ (tí·bǐ {carry (hanging down from the hand) → [raise; lift]} · pen; pencil; {writing brush} [→ [start writing; write]] 提笔 提筆)‐wàng (forget 忘)‐zì (character 字) (character amnesia), makes it obvious that the extraordinary unnecessary complexities and vagaries of Chinese characters impose great costs and difficulties on those using them—who knows, if China had long ago moved on from the characters to use alphabetic writing, maybe it could have gotten to the moon first. True, some athletes purposely train while wearing additional weights, but the way traditional Chinese culture insists on pervasive use of the unnecessarily extraordinarily complex characters, it’s like requiring those athletes to actually run marathons, etc., for real while wearing heavy unnecessary weights.

In the Mandarin field, it seems quite possible that the unnecessary costs and difficulties imposed by characters could actually be fatal in some cases, barring extraordinary intervention from Jehovah God. As the article “Pīnyīn (Pīn·yīn {Piecing Together of} · Sounds → [Pinyin] 拼音) Was Plan A” goes on to say:

True, with the simplification of the characters, the assistance of Pīnyīn, and the extra hard work put forth by the Chinese people to “tough out” the extra technical burdens presented by the characters, it now seems unlikely from a worldly viewpoint that the use of characters will cause the nation of China to die (although we know it will die at Armageddon, and its culture’s influence will eventually fade away completely after that). However, how sad it would be if many Chinese people died unnecessarily because the ongoing obstacles presented by Chinese characters hindered our efforts to reach their hearts with the life-saving message from God’s Word.

So, as Hebrews 12:1 says, let us Mandarin field language learners “throw off every weight”, and whenever possible, not allow the unnecessary heavy cultural baggage of the Chinese characters to weigh us down in our vital God-honouring and life-saving work. Even if Jehovah makes special arrangements to make sure that none of his Chinese sheep ultimately get left behind, what will he think of us if we fail to make every reasonable effort to avoid unnecessary difficulties as we do this life-saving work that he has assigned to us?—Ezekiel 3:17–19.